The religious literature of the Mazdayasna (Venerators of Mazda), the ancient Iranian tradition rooted in the Mazda-centered teachings of Zarathustra, consists of a historically evolved corpus of texts. Its primary source is the Avesta, which was transmitted and compiled over various periods. In addition to the Avesta, there exists a substantial body of Middle Persian literature, mainly from the Sasanian era, which is predominantly exegetical or systematizing in nature. Later texts in New Persian further complement this literary heritage.
This introduction provides a structured overview of the main divisions of the preserved Mazdayasnian literature. It is also intended to serve as a foundation for future analysis of the texts and for critically assessing later historical additions. Furthermore, this page is designed as a resource for researchers seeking a clear overview and direct access for academic purposes.
Created by Piroz
Overview
Conventionally, the Mazdayasna literature is divided into two blocks, namely the Avestan and Middle Persian blocks, leaving other facets and details out. To give a clearer overview over the characteristics, I’d like to further divide into these blocks:
Avestan Phase
Gathas
Date: ca. 1200–1000 BCE
Language: Old Avestan
The Gathas are the oldest preserved texts of the Mazdayasnian and Zoroastrian tradition and are considered to be the actual words of Zarathustra. They consist of seventeen poetic hymns, composed in a solemn meter and tone. Thematically, the Gathas deal with moral action, the cosmic order and truth (asha), the influence of the Good Spirit (Spenta Mainyu), and the human choice between truth and falsehood.
These are not narrative texts but devotional invocations and reflective verses. They are addressed both to the divine being (Ahura Mazda) and to humans—particularly rulers, communities, and spiritual allies. Because of their linguistic and conceptual complexity, they are often difficult to interpret, yet they form the theological foundation of Mazdayasna.
In the Avesta, the Gathas are embedded within the Yasna (chapters 28–34, 43–46, 47–50, 51, and 53), though they retain their distinct and central position.
Yasna
Date: Composed and transmitted over several centuries, with parts dating from the time of the Gathas until about 500 BCE
Language: Old Avestan and Younger Avestan
The Yasna is a central liturgical text of the Mazdayasna tradition and serves as the main ritual manual for offering sacrifices. It includes the Gathas, but also contains additional hymns, prayers, and invocations intended for use during religious ceremonies.
The Yasna functions as the core of Zoroastrian worship, guiding priests and practitioners through the rituals that maintain the cosmic order and honor the divine. Its contents cover praises to Ahura Mazda, requests for blessings, and ceremonial instructions, linking human worship with the spiritual realm.
While the Gathas provide the theological foundation, the Yasna expands on this with formalized prayers and ritual texts, some composed in the later Younger Avestan language, reflecting developments in religious practice over time.
Visperad
Date: Approximately 500–300 BCE
Language: Younger Avestan
The Visperad is a liturgical extension of the Yasna, primarily intended for use during major Zoroastrian festivals and high ceremonies. It supplements the Yasna ritual with additional invocations and prayers that honor all the divine beings (Yazatas) and reinforce the sacred order.
Unlike the Yasna, which can be used regularly, the Visperad is reserved for special occasions and is meant to amplify the power and solemnity of the rituals. Its texts emphasize the cosmic battle between good and evil and the importance of maintaining purity and truth.
The Visperad is closely linked to the Yasna both structurally and thematically, expanding the ritual repertoire of the Mazdayasna tradition during the late Avestan period.
Yashts
Date: Approximately 600–300 BCE, based on older mythological traditions
Language: Younger Avestan
The Yashts are a collection of hymns dedicated to various divine beings known as Yazatas. These hymns praise individual gods and goddesses, focusing on their roles in the cosmic order, mythology, and protection of the world.
Each Yasht typically centers on a specific deity and celebrates their attributes, powers, and deeds through poetic verses. The texts provide insight into the pantheon and cosmology of the Mazdayasna tradition, highlighting the interconnectedness of divine forces.
The Yashts combine devotion with mythological storytelling, helping worshippers to understand and honor the spiritual entities that support the cosmic struggle between good and evil.
Vendidad (Vidēvdād)
Date: Compiled roughly between 400 and 200 BCE, based on older traditions
Language: Younger Avestan
The Vendidad is a collection of texts focusing on laws of purity, rituals, and mythological narratives related to the fight against demons and evil forces. It serves as a kind of religious legal code, outlining rules for maintaining spiritual and physical cleanliness and for protecting the community from harmful influences.
The text contains a mix of ritual instructions, mythic stories about the origins of evil, and guidelines for priests and followers on how to perform purification rites. It reflects an increased concern with combating spiritual pollution and defending the sacred order against destructive powers.
The Vendidad is distinctive within the Avesta for its focus on practical religious law and myth, forming an important part of the Mazdayasnian tradition’s protective and ritual practices.
Fig. 1: Aryānwēžan (Aryanam Vaejah), the homeland of the people that the Vendidad considered as Aryans.
Sassanid Phase
Khordeh Avesta
Date: Compiled and edited roughly between the 3rd and 7th centuries CE (Late Antiquity)
Language: Younger Avestan, with later additions in Middle and New Persian
The Khordeh Avesta is a collection of shorter prayers and hymns intended for daily personal use by Zoroastrian laypeople. Unlike the more formal and liturgical Yasna or Visperad, the Khordeh Avesta gathers accessible texts for routine devotional practice.
It includes various blessings, invocations, and hymns that cover a range of spiritual needs—from protection and health to expressions of faith. Over time, this collection was expanded with Middle Persian commentaries and later Persian translations, reflecting its ongoing use in different historical periods.
The Khordeh Avesta remains important for individual religious life, serving as a prayerbook for Zoroastrians outside the priestly rituals.
Bundahishn
Date: Early versions from the 6th–7th centuries CE; final redaction likely in the 9th century CE
Language: Middle Persian
The Bundahishn is a foundational cosmological and theological text of the Mazdayasna tradition. It presents a comprehensive account of the creation of the world, the nature of humanity, and the ultimate destiny of the universe from a Zoroastrian perspective.
This work synthesizes myth, cosmology, anthropology, and eschatology—explaining how the world was formed, the role of divine beings, the origin of evil, and the final renovation (Frashokereti). The Bundahishn serves as an essential source for understanding classical Zoroastrian worldview and religious doctrine.
Its composition in Middle Persian allowed it to be widely read and referenced during the Sasanian Empire and afterward, preserving and systematizing Zoroastrian beliefs.
Transition Phase
Date: 9th century CE
Language: Middle Persian
The Denkard is a comprehensive theological encyclopedia of the Mazdayasna tradition. It systematically presents Zoroastrian doctrine, ethics, rituals, and mythology, aiming to preserve the faith’s teachings after the decline of the Sasanian Empire.
This work also attempts to reconstruct and summarize lost parts of the Avesta and other older texts, serving as a critical repository of religious knowledge. It addresses philosophical questions, refutes rival religious ideas, and offers guidance on religious practice and clerical duties.
The Denkard is a key resource for understanding post-Sasanian Zoroastrian thought and played an important role in maintaining religious identity under changing historical conditions.
Arda Viraf Namag
Date: Origins in the 3rd–4th centuries CE; surviving version from the 9th century CE
Language: Middle Persian
The Arda Viraf Namag is a visionary text recounting the journey of the priest Arda Viraf through the realms of heaven and hell. Its narrative explores the rewards of righteousness and the consequences of sin, illustrating core Zoroastrian beliefs about the afterlife and divine judgment.
This work serves both as spiritual encouragement and religious instruction, emphasizing moral conduct and the ultimate triumph of good. It reflects the concerns of Mazdayasna followers during the late antique period and provides rich insight into their eschatological views.
The Arda Viraf Namag became widely influential in shaping popular conceptions of the spiritual world within Zoroastrianism.
Shkand Gumanik Vichar
Date: Approximately 9th century CE
Language: Middle Persian
The Shkand Gumanik Vichar is a philosophical and theological defense of the Mazdayasna tradition. Written by the scholar Mardanfarrokh, it systematically argues against skepticism and critiques competing religious systems.
This text explores fundamental religious concepts, emphasizing rational understanding and logical reasoning to support Zoroastrian beliefs. It addresses doubts about the existence of God, the nature of evil, and the authority of sacred texts.
By combining philosophy with religious doctrine, the Shkand Gumanik Vichar serves as an apologetic work aimed at reinforcing faith during a period of religious contestation.
Selections of Zadspram
Date: 9th century CE
Language: Middle Persian
The Selections of Zadspram is a compilation focusing on cosmology, theology, and ritual law within the Mazdayasna tradition. It gathers teachings attributed to the priest Zadspram, who was active during the Sasanian period.
This work elaborates on the structure of the universe, divine hierarchies, and detailed rules for religious ceremonies. It reflects an effort to preserve and codify ritual knowledge for the Zoroastrian clergy and community.
The text played a significant role in transmitting Sasanian-era religious scholarship to later generations.
Epistles of Manuščihr
Date: Late 9th century CE
Language: Middle Persian
The Epistles of Manuščihr are authoritative letters written by the high priest Manuščihr addressing questions about ritual practice, religious doctrine, and community concerns. These texts provide practical guidance on maintaining Mazdayasnian traditions in daily life and worship.
They reflect efforts to strengthen religious identity and discipline during a time of political and cultural changes, emphasizing the importance of adherence to established customs.
The epistles are valuable historical documents offering insight into Zoroastrian religious life and administration in the post-Sasanian period.
Dadestan-i Denig (Religious Judgments)
Date: Around 9th–10th century CE
Language: Middle Persian
The Dadestan-i Denig is a collection of religious and ethical rulings presented as questions and answers. It clarifies topics like ritual purity, sin, moral behavior, and proper religious practice. Written in a dialogic form, it serves as a practical guide to understanding Zoroastrian law and theology for priests and laypeople alike.
Rivayat (Epistles)
Date: 9th–12th century CE
Language: Middle Persian
The Rivayat is a series of letters exchanged between Zoroastrian priests and communities, especially between Iran and the Indian Parsi diaspora. The epistles focus on ritual regulations, calendrical matters, and resolving doctrinal questions, helping maintain religious consistency across dispersed groups.
Other
Dabestan-e Mazahib (School of Religions)
Date: 17th century CE
Language: Persian
The Dabestan-e Mazahib is a comparative religion manuscript that includes extensive sections describing Zoroastrian beliefs and rituals. Although not a Zoroastrian text itself, it offers valuable historical insight into how the religion was viewed and practiced during the early modern period, particularly in India.
