Parthian Settler Colonization of Northern Mesopotamia

After the collapse of the Assyrian Empire, a combination of devastating megadroughts and the destructive invasions by the Medes and Babylonians left northern Mesopotamia largely emptied and forgotten for centuries. This once-vibrant region remained quiet until the Seleucid and especially the Parthian eras when we begin to see new life and culture take root again. What followed was a slow but lasting wave of Iranian settler colonization, a transformation that we can still trace in the archaeological remains scattered across the highlands of Adiabene and Gordyene.

Created by Dara Koyee

One of the most exciting discoveries supporting this is Rabana-Merquly, a fortified mountain site in Iraqi Kurdistan. Excavations have uncovered clear evidence of a strong Parthian presence including a rock relief showing a local ruler dressed in traditional Parthian trousers, sash, and tunic, standing near what looks like a fire altar. Some scholars believe this may be the lost city of Natounia known from ancient coins as Natounissarokerta or “the fortress of Natounissar,” possibly an early Adiabenian king.

The site also boasts two temples, one dedicated to the Iranian goddess Anahita and another that might have been for Mithra. These finds fit perfectly with what we know about Parthian religious practices across Iran. Anahita, goddess of water, fertility, and wisdom, was especially important during the times of drought that plagued this region. Her sanctuaries, like those found in Kangavar and Pol-e Dokhtar in Iran, share architectural similarities with the temple at Rabana, underscoring the cultural connections.

This religious influence was not limited to Rabana. Near Duhok, just north of ancient Adiabene, archaeologists found another sanctuary likely dedicated to Anahita. This site features rock-cut channels designed to carry water and an open-air sacrificial space strikingly similar to water temples found in Iran. These sanctuaries were more than just places of worship. They symbolized control over life-giving water in a recovering environment, showing how Iranian settlers brought both faith and practical knowledge to these lands.

The Parthian presence in northern Mesopotamia is further confirmed by rock reliefs found in Amadiya, an ancient city once ruled by the Mitanni. These carvings depict figures dressed in Parthian-style trousers with scarves and tunics, reinforcing the idea that Iranian elites were established here. Another notable relief near Harir depicts King Izates II, suggesting continued Iranian influence even as the region began embracing new religions like Judaism.

These images were not just decorative. They made political statements about authority and cultural identity during a time of change.

Moving west to Gordyene, we see a similar pattern. Although often overlooked compared to Adiabene, Gordyene’s archaeological record shows Iranian influence as well. Local rulers such as Zarbienus and Bakur carried Iranian names, and rock reliefs found north of Cizre show figures wearing Parthian trousers standing before altars. Contrary to older theories, no fortress built by Gordyene itself has been found. Instead, these remains indicate that Parthian fortresses and religious sites were established to integrate the region into Iranian cultural and political spheres.

Surveys from the Tigris-Euphrates Archaeological Reconnaissance Project confirm that Gordyene’s ceramics and devotional objects closely resemble those found in other Parthian borderlands. As historian Michał Marciak points out, this shared material culture shows a deliberate Iranian provincial identity taking shape across northern Mesopotamia.

Fig. 1: Extent of Adiabene and Corduene (Gordyene) in the Arsacid-Parthian era and probably Sasano-Parthian era.

Adding to this story is an interesting Roman account recorded by Cassius Dio. He tells us that during his campaigns, Emperor Caracalla captured Arbela, modern-day Erbil, and opened the tombs of Parthian kings scattering their bones in an act of defilement.

While no archaeological evidence has yet confirmed the existence of this royal necropolis at Arbela, the story strongly suggests the city was a major dynastic burial site, highlighting its importance as both a political and sacred center in Adiabene.

All this evidence — temples, rock reliefs, fortresses, and even royal tombs shows how northern Mesopotamia was more than just a borderland. The Parthian settler colonization reshaped the region’s identity, weaving Iranian religious, political, and cultural elements deeply into its fabric.

Of course, northern Mesopotamia was not an ethnically uniform space. Various groups lived, moved, and interacted here over centuries. But the lasting influence of Iranian settlement changed the course of the region’s history. This was a gradual but effective process whose legacies endure today in the culture and identity of Iranian-descended peoples living in the area.

Rather than a forgotten frontier, these highlands were a vibrant, sacred frontier, a place where Iranian civilization continued to grow and adapt through the Parthian era and beyond.

The Hadhbani tribal confederation, which emerges in the early Islamic period across Adiabene and the upper Tigris region, likely preserves a legacy of Parthian presence in northern Mesopotamia. Several dynasties—such as the Rawadids, Shaddadids, and Hasanwayhids—are reported to descend from the Hadhbanis. Although a direct genealogical link to the Parthians cannot be definitively established, the regional context strongly suggests historical continuity worth serious consideration.

The name Hadhbani appears to derive from Hadhaiyab, the known Parthian term for Adiabene. This connection extends beyond mere phonetic similarity, indicating a preserved identity that carried over from the Parthian administrative framework into the tribal structures of the Islamic period. Such names and affiliations are rarely coincidental and typically endure through meaningful transmission.

Cassius Dio records that when Caracalla captured Arbela, he desecrated the tombs of Parthian kings by scattering their remains. Such an act implies significant symbolic value, reinforcing Arbela’s role as more than a provincial city—it likely functioned as a royal necropolis and one of the sacred-political centers of the Parthian presence in the region.

While the evidence does not yield a definitive conclusion, the broader historical pattern supports the notion that many local elites and tribal networks in post-Parthian northern Mesopotamia were shaped by the memory and institutional residue of earlier Iranian structures. Among these, the Hadhbanis represent one of the most compelling examples of such continuity.

• Marciak, Michał. Sophene, Gordyene, and Adiabene: Three Regna Minora of Northern Mesopotamia Between East and West. Leiden: Brill, 2017.
• Miglus, Peter A., Michael Brown, and Juan Aguila. “Parthian Rock-Reliefs from Amādiya in Iraqi-Kurdistan.” Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 27/1 (2018): 353–373.
• Brown, Michael, and Rebin Rashid. “A Possible Parthian-Era Anahita Sanctuary at Rabana in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq.” Iran 61.1 (2023): 1–17.
• Saadi Nejad, Manya. Anāhitā: Transformations of an Iranian Goddess. London: Routledge, 2018.
• Algaze, Guillermo, W. Breuninger, D. Lightfoot, and J. Rosenberg. “A New Frontier: First Results of the Tigris-Euphrates Archaeological Reconnaissance Project, 1988.” Iraq 53 (1991): 189–210.
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